Moro and her daughter San (Princess Mononoke) | © Studio Ghibli
“The trees cry out as they die, but you cannot hear them. I lie here. I listen to the pain of the forest and feel the ache of the bullet in my chest, and I dream of the day I will finally crunch that gun-woman’s head in my jaws.” – Moro to Ashitaka
Studio Ghibli has contributed towards making some of the greatest animated films of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, two of which are Princess Mononoke (1997) and Spirited Away (2001). Although the former is set in Japan’s late Muromachi period and the latter set in the Meiji period, they share a range of similarities, such as the theme of environmentalism, their use of Japanese folklore, as well as morally corrupt antagonists that amplify the importance of the causes our protagonists are fighting for. A common thread that runs through all of Miyazaki’s films is how they serve as sociocultural allegories and are majorly commentaries on contemporary Japanese society. Through examining the attitudes towards tradition and modernity found in both Princess Mononoke and Spirited Away, these films can be understood as critiques on how Western influences, such as mass industrialisation and consumerism, have led to the neglect of the country’s cultural roots in modern day Japan.
Though majority of the film takes place in the Meiji-inspired spirit realm, Spirited Away begins with an opening scene in contemporary, millennial Japan. The protagonist Chihiro, a ten-year old girl, is lying down in the back seats of her parents’ car while they drive through a quasi-urban landscape. Within the first few minutes of the film, we can already identify a number of symbols that reflect the theme of modernity in Japan. The space Chihiro has all to herself in the back of the car suggests that the vehicle is a symbol of luxury and presents modernity in a positive light. Additionally, Miyazaki deliberately peppers logos that the audience would be able to recognise immediately across this introductory scene, such as the finished box of KitKat, the Audi her father is driving and the Adidas duffle bag. The deliberate choice to include these popular Western brands could be implying how contemporary Japan has been heavily influenced by the West and succumbed to consumerist culture. Chihiro’s mother stating that she would have to “shop in the next town” reinforces the notion that contemporary Japan has likened itself to the West, as she picks up on this instantly once taking in the suburban setting. There is also a brief moment where the family drive past a shop for the Japanese car brand, Nissan. Perhaps this is a nod to the Meiji period, which is widely known as the era where Japan began to embrace westernisation and modernisation, but it can also be interpreted as a means of showcasing Japan as a nation that has been able to adapt to the growing demands of modernisation and capitalism by supplying goods.[1]
Chihiro and her parents after crashing their car into the forest | © Studio Ghibli
The initial few scenes highlighting the modernisation of Japan are then contrasted the moment Chihiro’s father drives off the tarmac road. This is a blatant shift in the film’s narrative, as they pass a small torii, a gate commonly found at the entrance of a Shinto shrine.[2] Shintoism is a religion indigenous to Japan and embodies the core principles of purity, familial love, respect for nature and worshiping the kami (deities), much of which is reflected in Japanese culture to this day.[3] Though the early 20th century saw Japan become more secular, respect for the kami and spirits is still engrained into the country’s culture. However, in this scene when Chihiro asks her mother about the shrines, her expression seemingly shows a lack of interest, which could be representative of how the average person in today’s Japanese society is detached from their cultural origins. In the preceding scene, Miyazaki also captures this indifference through the shot of the shrines. The deliberate choice of illustrating the weather-beaten shrines with weeds growing around them shows that despite being sacred, they have not been prayed to in a long time. Therefore, this demonstrates that contemporary Japan does not hold the same level of respect for the kami thatthe previous generations did, and echoes the idea that the emergence of Western influence in Japan has led to a disregard for tradition.
Unlike Spirited Away, Princess Mononoke fits into Miyazaki’s usual filmmaking aesthetic by taking place in a historical setting: Muromachi Japan.[4] The Muromachi period spanned across the fourteenth to the late sixteenth century and was known as an era that saw warfare (during the Sengoku years), a boom in urbanisation, the development of shogunal power and general social development.[5] These themes are prevalent within the film and can be used to understand how modernisation should not be conflated with progression. An instance where we can see modernity presented in a positive light is through the subversion of traditional gender roles and how each individual has a purpose in society. Irontown is led by a matriarchal leader, Lady Eboshi, who elevates the statuses of prostitutes and lepers by offering them employment.[6] The scene where Ashitaka visits the working women mirrors Japanese women in during the years of the Second World War, which marked the beginning of women gaining more rights and the opportunity to break from the traditional mould they were confined to.[7] In contrast, we can view Eboshi giving these social pariahs jobs as her exploiting them for labour. Although Irontown is progressive in how it emancipates brothel workers, the labour-intensive work carried out by the women reflects how contemporary society has and continues to exploit women under the guise of offering them liberation through the workforce.
While Eboshi represents modernity, the eponymous heroine Princess Mononoke, or San as she is otherwise referred to as, could be viewed as symbolic of tradition. After being abandoned in the forest by her human parents and raised by the wolf goddess, Moro, she is convinced she is a wolf herself and resents all humans because of their disrespect towards the environment. In an era of urbanisation and industrialisation, San is determined to preserve the sanctity of the forest, which could be allegorical of how the Meiji period saw Japan embrace Western culture through modernisation. Post-war anxieties of Japanese culture becoming less important in society can be seen through how San synonymises humans with evil. The film is not completely critical of modernisation, but rather how there is a lack of balance between it and protection of the environment, which is a tenet of Shinto belief. Like Spirited Away, Princess Mononoke also uses values of Shintoism as well as Confucianism and Buddhism, which make up the spiritual geography of traditional Japan.[8] Throughout the film, we are reminded of the need for a balance between nature and human progression, especially towards the end, when the destroyed landscape is restored, apart from Irontown. Although Eboshi does not explicitly state this, given that she is a leader that puts the wellbeing of her people first, we can assume that by the end of the film she has recognised the significance of the forest. The fact that she promises to rebuild a ‘better’ Irontown demonstrates that she has not completely disregarded industrialisation, but more importantly learnt to understand the harmony between modernisation and respect for nature. Therefore, this echoes the idea that Miyazakidoes not critique contemporary society for ‘westernising’ but rather calls for people to equally embrace their cultural heritage.
The fight between San and Lady Eboshi | © Studio Ghibli
Capitalism is further critiqued in Spirited Away as Chihiro enters the spirit world and is condemned to working in Yubaba’s Bathhouse. The scene preceding this explores how capitalist influences from the west have led to overconsumption, which is shown through Chihiro’s parents turning into pigs after eating food that had been left for the spirits. The portrayal of overconsumption holds a double meaning: in one sense it is a commentary of capitalism encouraging excessive spending of goods, but it can also be understood more literally as overeating. Hara hachi bu, which translates to ‘eat until 80% full’ is a Japanese phrase that has been practised for centuries and originated in the city of Okinawa, which is famously known for having healthy citizens and a high life expectancy.[9] Chihiro’s parents indulging in the food and ignoring this historic practice strengthens Miyazaki’s notion that capitalism has led to traditional Japanese society collapsing and being rebuilt in the image of the West. Their greed and disregard for Japanese culture reinforces the idea that a true Japanese identity ceases to exist because of the impact of Western influences. Identity, freedom, and individualism have been prided as being benefits of capitalist society, specifically during the Cold War to set it aside from leftist ideologies. However, Miyazaki refutes this idea through Yubaba and her Bathhouse. Upon entering the spirit world, Chihiro insists that Yubaba offers her a job and signs a contract. Given that the Bathhouse is structured like a capitalist system, we can interpret this as Miyazaki alluding to the idea that freedom is a false hope under capitalism. Here, she is literally signing her life away and given the new name Sen, which again could be seen as a representation of how the intense labour force strips you of your identity. The name Sen translates to ‘one thousand’ perhaps alluding to the fact that she has lost her individuality and become another one in a thousand. This echoes Miyazaki’s notion that capitalism poses a threat to Japanese identity, therefore demonstrating that the cost of modernity is losing tradition.
The Bathhouse and Irontown share similar roles in serving as microcosms of capitalist society but place their focus on different aspects of it. Before entering the spirit world, Spirited Away establishes how the dangers of overconsumption and greed are central to the plot, and continues to push this message through various scenes, such as No-Face’s gold determining his status in the Bathhouse. On the other hand, Princess Mononoke, uses the motifs of industrialisation and economic growth happening at the expense of environmental exploitation to illustrate the corrupt nature of capitalism. Miyazaki once stated, “the tragedy of human beings is that the people [who] try to push forward the most virtuous parts of humanity end up destroying nature”, which perfectly describes Lady Eboshi’s character and reaffirms that this film is a commentary on how Westernisation has had a profound effect on post-Meiji Japanese society.[10] In the scene where Ashitaka is dining with the men of Irontown, one of them marvels at how the town has been turned upside-down since Eboshi’s arrival and proudly mentions how “she’s not even afraid of the kami.” The indifference she and the people of Irontown feel towards traditional practices is representative of the current climate in Japan, which Spirited Away also draws attention to. It should be noted that this film does not completely criticise the West, but rather how tradition in Japan has been overshadowed by modernisation. Coexistence is a key theme this film exhibits, as it calls for harmony between humans and the environment. Joe Hisaishi cleverly reflects this sentiment through the soundtrack, using characteristics from both traditional Japanese folk music, as well as Western strains and instruments. The opening score, The Legend of Ashitaka, draws resemblance from a typical Japanese folk tune, which can be heard in the pentatonic scale.[11] Although this non-diegetic melody is largely pentatonic, Hisaishi layers this with support from the Dorian mode, which is primarily used in Western music.[12] The way these harmonies complement each other in The Legend of Ashitaka is an audial representation of how the film stands for there to be peace between mankind and the forest.
The two films explore destruction to nature as a consequence of human greed, which prompts the audience to think critically about their own treatment of the environment. When analysing Spirited Away through an ecological lens, we can begin to understand specific scenes as depictions of real-world issues linked to modernisation, such as global warming. Pollution is one of the more prominent ecological problems emphasised in the film, as seen through the ‘Stink Spirit’. The impacts of industrialisation are heavily critiqued in this sequence when Chihiro and the Bathhouse workers pull a bicycle handle from the sludge, unleashing a mountain of debris and revealing the Stink Spirit to be the River God. This scene drew inspiration from an experience of Miyazaki’s, where he was cleaning a local river and came across a bicycle stuck in the riverbed, therefore demonstrating how although this scene is fictional, it is the reality of modern Japan and the world.[13] Despite calling out contemporary society for its lack of care for the environment, it simultaneously offers a solution to how humans can change. Although it was Chihiro who was tasked to take care of the Stink Spirit, ultimately, with the help of the Bathhouse workers she was able to cleanse him. This demonstrates the power of community and collectivism, which is cornerstone of Japanese culture and suggests that adopting tradition is a means of combatting the issues that arise with embracing modernity. Another significant moment in the film that exhibits the negative effects of modernisation on the environment is Haku’s introduction. Haku embodies both tradition and modernity, as he was once a river spirit who was forced to work under Yubaba after his habitat, the Kohaku River, was destroyed and replaced with apartments. His story echoes an issue Miyazaki raises, regarding the commodification of land, and how contemporary Japanese society primarily focuses on its monetary value as opposed to the sanctity of nature.[14] His anxieties concerning contemporary society’s treatment of the environment stem from the fading presence of Shinto values in modern Japan. Therefore, this demonstrates how Spirited Away confronts the audience for being indifferent towards Japanese tradition in favour of Western modernisation.
The Bathhouse workers coming together to clean the Stink Spirit | © Studio Ghibli
Princess Mononoke shares a similar approach in outlining the implications of environmental damage as a result of modernisation. As previously stated, Lady Eboshi sets the tone for the community by being open about how she does not fear the kami, demonstrating how humans value the short-term benefits of industrialisation over preserving ecosystems. However, in addition to the characters and dialogue, Miyazaki also brings light to influences from the West through detail in the animation. The guns depicted in the film are matchlock rifles, which were typical of the period and imported from Europe to Japan in the late-Muromachi era.[15] While this was most likely done with the intention of maintaining historical accuracy, it carries the subtext of showcasing how the West has been involved in Japan’s history for centuries. Perhaps choosing to use Western firearms as the main weapon against San and Shishigami (the Forest Spirit) is emblematic of how Westernisation has subsequently led to a destruction of the environment in Japan. Furthermore, body horror is used to intensify the tragedy that is the conflict between human civilisation and nature. Despite being rated for children, there are a plethora of unsettling scenes, particularly at the beginning where we see Nago’s (the boar god) body engulfed by parasitic, worm-like creatures. The corruption of his body, and how Ashitaka becomes partially diseased once in contact, emphasises how humans are not exempt from the harm they cause to nature. This cyclical belief that damaging nature will ultimately result in nature fighting back is rooted in ancient Eastern philosophies, such as Shintoism and Daoism.[16] Therefore, this reiterates how although it is important to adapt in a modernising world, it is more important for contemporary society to hold onto their traditional values, given how relevant they are centuries later.
Ultimately, Miyazaki utilises both these films as allegories of post-war society in Japan and conveys major themes such as Westernisation, industrialisation and environmentalism through the characters and their conflicts. Spirited Away presents us with a plethora of attitudes towards tradition and modernity, particularly critiquing the capitalist model and how it will inadvertently lead to the collapse of society. Princess Mononoke, on the other hand, places its focus on assessing how industrial progression cannot be achieved through exploitation, especially of the environment. The complex storylines – and arguably unconventional endings, in the case of Princess Mononoke – urge the audience to move beyond the dichotomies of ‘good versus evil’ and ‘humans versus nature’ so that they can understand that tradition and modernity are not replacements of one another, but rather two views that work best when practised together.
Bibliography:
[1] Bella Kim, “Revisiting ‘Spirited Away’: A Timeless Tale of Capitalism”, The Harvard Crimson, [accessed 12th April 2024], https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2021/11/30/spirited-away-retrospective-review/#:~:text=Indeed%2C%20the%20spirit%20world%20is,became%20receptive%20to%20Western%20influences.
[2] Grace Rowland, “Exploring Shinto Themes and their Contribution to Environmental Education in Miyazaki’s Studio Ghibli”, LOGOS: A Journal of Undergraduate Research, Vol. 13, [accessed 12th April 2024], https://www.missouristate.edu/LOGOS/_Files/LOGOS_Vol_13.pdf, p. 52.
[3] Naofusa Hirai, “Shinto”, Britannica, [accessed 12th April 2024], https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shinto.
[4] Susan Napier, Anime from Akira to Howl’s Moving Castle, (England: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), p. 181.
[5] Kenneth A. Grossberg, “From Feudal Chieftain to Secular Monarch. The Development of Shogunal Power in Early Muromachi Japan”, Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 31, No. 1, (1976), pp. 34-35.
[6] Rayna Denison, Princess Mononoke: Understanding Studio Ghibli’s Monster Princess, (London: Bloomsbury, 2018), pp. 61-62.
[7] Seth Friedman, “The Changing Roles of Women in Japanese Society.”, (1992), [accessed 12th April 2024], http://www2.gol.com/users/friedman/writings/p1.html.
[8] Arran Stibbe, “Zen and the Art of Environmental Education in the Japanese Animated Film Tonari no Totoro.” Journal for the Study of Religion, Nature and Culture, pp. 468–488.
[9] Lexi Endicott, “Mitigating the Mindless Mouthful Through Moderation, Manipulation and Mindfulness”, The Boller Review: A TCU Journal of Undergraduate Research and Creativity, p. 4-8.
[10] Hayao Miyazaki (trans. Beth Cary and Frederik L. Schodt), “Turning Point, 1997– 2008”, VIZ Media, p. 84.
[11] James Scaramuzzino, “Joe Hisaishi’s Musical Contributions to Hayao Miyazaki’s Animated Worlds”, A Division III Project, p. 4.
[12] Kyoko Koizumi, “An Animated Partnership: Joe Hisaishi’s Musical Contributions to Hayao Miyazaki’s Films.” Drawn to Sound: Animation Film Music and Sonicity, (London: Equinox Pub, 2010), pp. 60-74.
[13] Yuan Pan, “Human–Nature Relationships in East Asian Animated Films”, Societies, Vol 10, (2020), pp. 11-12, [accessed 13th April 2024].
[14] Denison, Princess Mononoke: Understanding Studio Ghibli’s Monster Princess, p. 31.
[15] Mike Baker, “Cultural Diffusion and Its Effects on Japan.”, [accessed 10th April 2024], samurai-archives.com.
[16] Pan, “Human–Nature Relationships in East Asian Animated Films”, p. 11.
Azra Hussain is a history graduate, writer and bookseller based in London. She is a keen reader and spends her days either brainstorming ideas for novels that she would love to write in the future or trying to hack through her ever-growing Letterboxd watchlist. You can find more personal pieces of hers on her Substack page.
